TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: In IBD, probiotic strains such as Lacticaseibacillus paracasei L74 and the species Streptococcus salivarius suppress NF-κB activation and inflammatory cytokine production, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Lp91 reduces tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression, promoting intestinal integrity [44].