TNF and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: Additionally, prebiotics influence systemic inflammation, a key factor in obesity, by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and IL-6), enhancing anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10), activating the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), and regulates the gene expression of mucin family genes (MUC1–4) [95].