INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: In T1D, β-cell loss is preceded by the development of autoantibodies that target β-cell antigens (i.e., glutamic acid decarboxylase (GADA), insulin (IAA), zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8A), and insulinoma associated protein-2 (IA-2A), which typically emerge months to years before clinical symptoms offering valuable prognostic insights19.