The intricate interplay between autophagy, mTOR/AMPK pathways, HIF-1α, and the NLRP3 inflammasome in PH and AF presents promising avenues for therapeutic interventions, with future research focusing on identifying specific autophagy markers, developing targeted therapies, and elucidating the complex interactions between autophagy, inflammation, and oxidative stress in cardiovascular diseases [115,117]. Here, HIF1A is linked to atrial fibrillation.