TGFB1 and neoplasm: Within the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor-associated macrophages predominantly adopt an M2-like phenotype, secreting cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-β, chemokines like CCL2 and CCL5, and proteases such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) (Hao et al., 2017; Annamalai et al., 2018).