NFKB1 and neoplasm: Recent research has revealed that exosomes derived from head and neck squamous cell carcinoma promote M1 macrophage polarization by modulating STAT1, NF-κB, and activator protein-1 signaling pathways, providing novel insights into the role of tumor-derived exosomes in shaping macrophage-mediated TME dynamics (Yadav et al., 2025).