Conversely, microbial modification in AD was also shown to ameliorate markers of neuroinflammation (e.g. reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, IBA-1 expression), neuropathology (reduced amyloid-β plaque load), and cognitive deficits (Liu et al., 2020; Syeda et al., 2018; Cuervo-Zanatta et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2019, 2024; Pan et al., 2022; Qu et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2020), associated with increased gut butyrate production (Cuervo-Zanatta et al., 2023), and reduced gut permeability (Syeda et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2020). Here, AIF1 is linked to Alzheimer disease.