GFAP expression (IF, IHC, or WB) was quantified in 10 (non-AD/non-PD) models of cognitive impairment (SMD 1.62 [0.42–2.82], Fig. 3) (Hao et al., 2023; Giridharan et al., 2022; Syeda et al., 2022; Zheng et al., 2023; Wei et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2021; Hoyles et al., 2021; Angoa-Pérez et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2024), with a further study quantifying LCN2 as a measure of astrocyte activation (1.67x increase following 6-months TMAO supplementation) (Brunt et al., 2021). This evidence concerns the gene GFAP and Cognitive impairment.