TNF and ulcer disease: In addition to oxidative stress, inflammation is also a crucial factor in the pathophysiology of gastropathy that is generated by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.120–122 Based on the findings of the present study, it was observed that the level of inflammatory markers, specifically TNF-α and IL-1β, was considerably greater in the group that was subjected to ulcer induction (G2) compared to the group that served as the control (G1) and the other treatment groups (G3, G4).