TNF and ischemic stroke: The inflammatory responses following TBI and ischemic stroke is largely mediated by the release of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1 (IL-1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), as well as the upregulation of cell adhesion molecules, such as Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) (Hang et al., 2005).