LPS, a major component of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria and a well-known endotoxin, activates the host’s immune response by stimulating hepatic immune cells, particularly macrophages, via Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and is considered a significant factor in promoting HCC progression by inducing liver inflammatory responses that lead to hepatocyte necrosis or apoptosis and subsequent liver injury (Singh et al., 2017; Luo et al., 2023). Here, TLR4 is linked to hepatocellular carcinoma.