TNF and colitis: Oxidative stress in colitis is characterized by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which directly promote the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-17 (IL-17), and interleukin-33 (IL-33) (Lin et al., 2023).