TNF and autoimmune thyroid disease: Furthermore, the AMPK pathway activation increases lysophosphatidic acid production in glycerol ester metabolism, which, via the G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCR) pathway, activates the NF-κB pathway (36, 37), escalating pro-inflammatory mediators like TNF-α and IL-6, leading to thyroid autoimmunity and hormonal disruptions.