Additionally, immune cells (e.g., macrophages, neutrophils) activated by NF-κB secrete cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β), which further stimulate NF-κB in AECs, amplifying the inflammatory cascade in IPF (Baker et al., 2011; Li et al., 2017b). Here, TNF is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.