INS and Insulin resistance: A total of 313 participants were categorized into three groups based on the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR): insulin-sensitive (HOMA-IR < 2.69 without diabetes, n = 75), mild IR (HOMA-IR ≥ 2.69 without diabetes, n = 155), and severe IR (HOMA-IR ≥ 2.69 with type 2 diabetes, n = 83).