These non-canonical signaling pathways, including the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), protein kinase C (PKC), IRF3, or NF-κB, can be activated by cellular stress (e.g., heat shock, DNA damage, oxidative stress) or viral infections (18, 143). This evidence concerns the gene MTOR and viral infectious disease.