Functional studies validated significant inhibition of TGF-β signaling in multiple GBM lines (U251MG, SB28), which is significant given its pro-tumorigenic role in GBM and other cancers via both tumor-intrinsic and extrinsic (i.e. immune microenvironment) mechanisms [20–22, 24–27]. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and cancer.