TNF and neoplasm: In contrast to COX-1,the cyclooxygenase-2 gene has several regulatory sites, making it possible for bacterial endotoxins such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), growth factors (GFs), and the tumor promoter phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) to quickly induce COX-2 production [86].