TGFB1 and Hyperglycemia: Furthermore, hyperglycemia triggers an aberrant activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system with increased activation of AT-1R (angiotensin-1 receptor) and MR (mineralocorticoid receptor) due to angiotensin II (AT II) and aldosterone both increasing expression of TGF-β/Smad signaling [22].