INS and cardiovascular disorder: The precise mechanism linking diabetes to cognitive impairment remains under investigation, but it is hypothesized that factors such as hyperglycemia-induced neuroinflammation (Zhang et al., 2022), oxidative stress (Zhang et al., 2022), insulin resistance (Kellar and Craft, 2020; Sȩdzikowska and Szablewski, 2021), and vascular issues stemming from cardiovascular disease (van Sloten et al., 2020) may play a role.