TNF and colitis: This aligns with previous research on the pathogenic role of Desulfovibrio species in other inflammatory diseases, particularly inflammatory bowel diseases, where D. vulgaris proliferation has been shown to worsen intestinal barrier damage and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, iNOS, and TNF-α), ultimately exacerbating DSS-induced colitis (Huang et al., 2024).