Histopathological analyses have identified upregulation of prothrombogenic and inflammatory mediators—such as von Willebrand factor (vWF), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) [155], P-selectin, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)—within the atrial endocardium of patients with AF, independent of comorbid vascular disease [155,156,157]. Here, VCAM1 is linked to atrial fibrillation.