CASP3 and Alzheimer disease: Recent studies demonstrate that MSC-derived EVs contain protective miRNAs (e.g., miR-21-5p, miR-133a-3p) that attenuate apoptosis in hypoxic cardiomyocytes by modulating CASP3 and BAX expression [47], which aligns with our observed reduction in cardiac fibrosis post-AD-MSC therapy.