TNF and inflammatory response: Conversely, the increase in LPS resulting from gut microbiota dysbiosis activates pro-inflammatory pathways, leading to elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the blood, which may induce systemic chronic inflammation (Liu et al., 2021a).