TGF-β also induces many different effector processes related to different pathological states, such as atrial fibrillation (Dobaczewski et al., 2011), HF (Bocchi et al., 2017), promoting cardiac fibrosis in obesity (Improta-Caria et al., 2023), diabetes mellitus (Reeves and Andreoli, 2000), hypertension (Improta-Caria et al., 2021) and coronary arterial disease (Low et al., 2019). Here, TGFB1 is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.