TNF and infection: Furthermore, given that cytokines are critical modulators of antibody-mediated immunity, we investigate whether the pro-inflammatory (IL-6 and TNF-α) and regulatory (IL-10, TGF-β1, and sTNFRI) cytokine responses influence the development of the virus-specific antibody response during the early stage of infection, in survivors and non-survivors of COVID-19 (Figure 4B).