PTEN and cancer: The activation of PTEN primarily involves the dephosphorylation of PIP3 (Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate) to PIP2 (Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate) at the cell membrane, thereby inhibiting the PI3K/AKT signaling and cancer-promoting pathways [48, 49].