TGFB1 and neoplasm: Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a pivotal role by secreting growth factors such as TGF-β [57], VEGF [58], and IL-6 [59], which drive tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and resistance to apoptosis, while also remodeling the ECM to create a stiffened tumor bed that enhances cancer cell migration and immune suppression.