INS and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: Through these mechanisms, ferulic acid contributes to the protection of pancreatic β-cells, preventing glucotoxicity and maintaining insulin secretion; improved endothelial function via reduced ROS in blood vessels, mitigating hypertension; reduced adipose inflammation, thereby attenuating obesity-related complications; and the preservation of mitochondrial function by decreasing ROS production and enhancing ATP synthesis in insulin-sensitive tissues [98,99].