TNF and Chagas disease: Anti-cytokine treatment yielded contradictory results; while the use of Infliximab, an anti-TNF-α antibody, blocked disease progression in a murine model of CCC [194], TNF-α blockade with Etanercept aggravated progression of ventricular dysfunction in a Syrian hamster model of CCC [195], indicating the complexity of anti-inflammatory therapy for Chagas disease, this protective effect of TNF-alpha may have been due to activation-induced cell death of autoreactive CD4+ T cells [196].