INS and diabetes mellitus: Oxidative stress is mainly involved in DM development through at least three ways: 1) blocking of the insulin action pathway, which leads to IR (Masenga et al., 2023), 2) reducing insulin gene expression, resulting in reduced insulin synthesis and secretion (Hoseini et al., 2022), and 3) promoting islet cell apoptosis (Zhao et al., 2023).