TNF and viral encephalitis: In encephalitis patients or I HFMD-alone patients infected with EV-71, the cytokine levels of IL-2, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-17A, IL-22, and IL-1β were significantly increased compared to healthy controls, and the encephalitis patients had even higher levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-22, and IL-23 compared to the HFMD-alone patients [65].