INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: The studies included in this review show that exercise-mediated activation of these pathways leads to beneficial brain changes in T2DM, such as increased neuroplasticity, brain volume, synaptic plasticity, dendritic spines, insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial remodelling and biogenesis, and ATP production, as well as decreased inflammation, oxidative stress, and amyloid β and p-tau production.