INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Insulin resistance (IR) is characterized by elevated insulin levels, which is a compensatory mechanism of the human body to maintain normoglycemia (1), and is closely linked to the etiology of other metabolic disorders, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (2), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) (3, 4), and sarcopenia (5).