OAS1 and infection: The innate responses are characterized mainly by (1) the involvement of IFN-I and ISGs to induce an anti-viral state, (2) an OAS1/RNA-L pathway, (3) a non-traditional OAS1 pathway involving interaction with AU-rich elements (AREs) to sustain IFN-beta expression [168,169] and (4) apoptosis of infected cells (especially skin epithelial and keratinocytes) as rapid cellular response to infection [52].