TGFB1 and neoplasm: As shown in Figure 1, natural killer (NK) cells induce cytotoxicity in tumor cells by releasing perforin and granzyme, while M2-type tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) influenced by cytokines such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interact with tumor cells to promote i (20).