TNF and viral infectious disease: IFN signaling plays multiple roles during viral infections.129 Among the various inflammatory cytokines produced by innate immune cells in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, it has been identified that the co-production of TNF and IFN-γ uniquely triggers PANoptosis.62 During SARS-CoV-2 infection, Karki et al. found that only the combination of TNF and IFN-γ induced a form of inflammatory cell death characterized by PANoptosis.