TNF and endothelial dysfunction: First, spontaneous hypertensive rat models show reduced NO levels, elevated ET-1, inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-1β, TNF-α, MCP-1, VCAM-1), and ROS, indicating endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and oxidative stress (Chen et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2020; Kuganathan et al., 2024; Wojtacha et al., 2024).