TNF and infection: Innate immune cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) and chemokines in response to H pylori, promoting inflammation and recruiting additional immune cells to the infection site.[21] Pattern recognition receptors recognize specific components of H pylori (such as lipopolysaccharides and flagellin), initiating the innate immune response.