NFKB1 and Hyperglycemia: In addition, hyperglycemia leads to a pro-oxidant state by inducing the production of pro-inflammatory factors (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, IL-18, TNF-α, TGF-β, NF-κB, MCP-1, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1), as well as the activation of multiple signaling pathways that, in turn, impair antioxidant defenses.