This was accompanied by enhanced expression of key components in the insulin signaling pathway, including insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1), phosphorylated PI3K (p-PI3K), phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT), and phosphorylated GSK3β (p-GSK3β), compared to the NAFLD model group. This evidence concerns the gene INS and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.