TNF and epilepsy: They also found increased expression of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in FCD IIb and TSC, potentially leading to the upregulation of downstream inflammatory factors in epilepsy, including FPR2, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) [115].