VCAM1 and neoplasm: Finally, PPIs may also directly impact inflammatory responses by reducing the secretion of adhesion molecules (e.g., intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1), inhibiting cytokine production (e.g., interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α), and facilitating immune escape by increasing the translocation of PD-L1 to the tumor cell membrane [33,34].