TLR4 and lung cancer: Furthermore, TLR2, 4 and 9 regulate the promotion of K-ras-driven lung cancer by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)-like airway inflammation through activation of the MyD88/NF-κB pathway in the airway epithelium (Velasco et al., 2023).The high expression of TLR4 in lung cancer tissues is positively correlated with the degree of tumor malignancy, and its activation not only promotes proliferation and migration of lung cancer cells, but also induces immune escape mechanisms (Wang et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2013).