Notably, IL-6 and the IL-6 signaling cascade support glioblastoma tumorigenesis and stemness21,27, and we identified that genes involved in the IL-6 signaling pathway, such as ANXA1, LGALS3, and EGFR, were enriched in ICI non-responders pre-ICI (Fig. 2c)28–30. Here, EGFR is linked to glioblastoma.