ATF3 and diabetes mellitus: Because this vector also targets the pancreas, the overexpressed Atf3 could also play a role in stress-induced beta cell apoptosis (32); this impact of Atf3 on the pancreas could subsequently contribute to the issues in hepatic metabolism associated with persistent high Atf3 expression in ZDF rats and in humans with nonalchoholic fatty liver disease and/or diabetes (16).