Activated inflammatory macrophages release reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which have mutagenic potential, as well as cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukins (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-12), providing a conducive environment for the development of chronic inflammation-associated cancers. Here, TNF is linked to inflammatory response.