In addition, independent of diabetes and BMI in humans, adiponectin, which is lower in obesity, is associated inversely with pancreatic cancer risk, while leptin, which is upregulated in obesity, is associated positively with pancreatic cancer risk; and, in animal models, adiponectin inhibits while leptin stimulates pancreatic cancer growth (reviewed in [38]). This evidence concerns the gene ADIPOQ and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.