Additionally, we observed that ΔnleB/espL triggered enhanced macrophage cytotoxicity, caspase-8 and caspase-1 processing, GSDMD cleavage and IL-1β maturation compared to ΔnleB infection in LPS-primed macrophages (Fig. 5D,E), while ΔnleB/espL complemented with nleB or espL caused less cell lysis (Fig. EV5A). Here, GSDMD is linked to infection.