Whereas, differential gene expression analysis identified top upregulated genes, namely KIR2DL5A, KIR2DL5B, VTRNA1-1, HLA-DRA, SNORA80E, SNORD17, SNORA23, SNORA61, LZTS1-AS1, DNAH7 and top downregulated genes, namely CST11, KIR3DL1, MIR3938, BCYRN1, MIR4760, MIR4699, KRTAP4-8, MIR1293, MIR15B, TGIF2LX in the IPF with COVID history group compared to IPF alone group (Fig. 2A, C; S1; Tables S2 – S5). This evidence concerns the gene HLA-DRA and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.