Characterized by aggressive vascular pathology, including aneurysms and dissections of the aorta and other arteries, LDS is primarily caused by mutations in the genes encoding the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) receptors (TGFBR1 and TGFBR2), as well as other related genes such as SMAD3, TGFB2, and TGFB3[40]. Here, SMAD3 is linked to aneurysm.