TNF and atrial fibrillation: Elevated levels of inflammatory markers such as CRP, interleukins (ILs), TNF, TGF-β, NF-κB, and NLRP3 have been observed in patients with AF (Sinner et al., 2014; Brezinov et al., 2021; Gungor et al., 2013; Allah et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2015; Guo, 2019; Deng et al., 2011; Lu, 2024; Xu et al., 2022; Yao C. et al., 2018).